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This collection of notes is part of [1].
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatolia
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_Empire A confusing name for the Roman empire after the Western half of it split off and dissolved (some later European historians considered the Roman Empire to have fallen when the Western half (which includes the city of Rome) split off and dissolved and so gave a different name to the Eastern half after that, but the Eastern half still persisted, and still called itself Roman; there were major differences, however; the Eastern half was based in the Greek city of Istanbul (originally named Lygos, then Byzantium, then Nova Roma, then Constantinople, and currently Istanbul), and spoke Greek, and were Christian) "It survived the fragmentation and fall of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century AD and continued to exist for an additional thousand years until it fell to the Ottoman Turks in 1453. During most of its existence, the empire was the most powerful economic, cultural, and military force in Europe."
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umayyad "the second of the four major Islamic caliphates established after the death of Muhammad." 661–750
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fatamids "a Shia Islamic caliphate, which spanned a large area of North Africa, from the Red Sea in the east to the Atlantic Ocean in the west. " 909–1171
"The Abbasid Caliphate (Arabic: الخلافة العباسية al-Khilāfah al-‘Abbāsīyah) was the third of the Islamic caliphates to succeed the Islamic prophet Muhammad." 750–1258, 1261–1517
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mamluk_Sultanate_%28Cairo%29 1250-1517 "a medieval realm spanning Egypt, the Levant, and Hejaz" (1517 fell to Ottomans)
beginning of https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire in 1300
The positional base-10 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindu%E2%80%93Arabic_numeral_system "was invented between the 1st and 4th centuries by Hindu mathematicians. The system was adopted, by Persian mathematicians (Al-Khwarizmi's c. 825 book On the Calculation with Hindu Numerals) and Arab mathematicians (Al-Kindi's c. 830 volumes On the Use of the Hindu Numerals) by the 9th century. It later spread to the western world by the High Middle Ages."
